American independence is granted unwillingly by Great Britain, so
it is understandable the British have no interest in either nurturing the
new republic or being too far removed from the scene if the new republic
is to fail. If the American experiment in liberal democracy is to
fail, the British could possibly regain control of the territory, unless
other European powers get there first.
Most European continental nations are also reluctant to nurture the
new republic. America's experiment in liberal democracy, if successful,
might encourage other European colonies, and the European motherlands,
to revolt against monarchy and initiate their own experiment in liberal
republicanism. The French monarch helps in the American war of revolution,
but that help is intended to harm the French enemy, Great Britain, more
than encourage liberalism or republicanism. American victory in its
war for independence seriously undermines the French monarch and fuels
republicanism in France. It also encourages the Haitians to rebel
against French colonial rule in Haiti, a French Caribbean possession.
American failure to repay France for loans and expenses incurred when assisting
the American revolution also encourages schism between France and the United
States. Indeed, the expenses incurred by the French government in
the American Revolution create a financial crisis in France, help undermine
the French monarchy, and require the French monarch to call a meeting of
the French Assembly in order to raise taxes to relieve the crisis.
Once the Assembly is called, the French liberal republican revolution is
underway; the French monarch soon falls and French republicans, successful
at home, begin to export their revolution to the other nations of Europe.
Beginning in 1789, the European continent falls into nearly two decades
of revolution, counter-revolution, Napoleonic Empire, collapse of the Napoleonic
Empire, and restoration of the pre-revolutionary regimes under the Holy
Alliance. European attention is directed inward and America becomes
a secondary, but still important, consideration. This "neglect" allows
the American republic to consolidate itself and strengthen itself.
Britain continues to occupy frontier military installations even
after the Revolutionary War ends. Britain has several reasons for
failure to withdraw forces. First, Britain wants to maintain forward positions
from which to reclaim the colonies and prevent rival European nations,
especially France and Spain, from initiating their own colonizing efforts
should the confederation between the newly independent United States collapse.
Indeed, there is serious political and economic instability within the
confederation and serious cultural disunity that fuels British speculation
the United States will not survive. Once the Articles of Confederation
is replaced by the Constitution, the United States becomes more politically
stable, economically solvent, and culturally united and British hopes start
to dim.
Second, Britain maintains a military presence in the frontier in
order to not desert their Native American allies. The Indians side
with the British against the American revolutionaries and now need
protection from American retribution and from the flood of frontiersmen and settlers moving west, into and throughf the Appalachian Mountains.
Third, Britain wants to continue to exploit the fur trade in the
northwestern frontier; exploitation of natural resources is key to the British
mercantilist economic system.
Fourth, Britain wants to provide a constant threat of intervention
to insure that British loyalists remaining in the United States after the
revolution are not persecuted by the victorious revolutionaries.
Large numbers of British "Loyalists" or "Tories" flee to Canada or return
to British soil during the American Revolution and immediately after the
final British defeat, but many still remain in the newly free United States.
Finally, Britain wants to hold some American frontier territory hostage
to insure the Americans pay the war reparations promised in the treaty
ending the American revolutionary war.
During the 1780s, American diplomats gradually negotiate the withdrawal
of British forces and make some agreements with England to pay the war
reparations. At the same time, France increases pressures on the
United States to repay French loans and expenses incurred in support of
the war. Relations between the U.S. and both nations become increasingly
strained. When the French Revolution begins in 1789, the United States
seeks to remain neutral in both the revolutionary and counter-revolutionary
efforts that swiftly embroil France and all the nations of Europe; Congress
approves legislation declaring neutrality.
As the French Revolution and the warfare on the European Continent that follows revolution spreads, both Britain and France declare blockades on each other, ban shipping
to either nation by neutral nations, ban international commerce in goods
and raw materials from or to each other's national territory and overseas colonies
by any nation, including neutral nations, and begin seizing ships from
neutral nations violating the blockades and bans.
American merchants have no intention of respecting either the blockades
or the bans. U.S. flagged ships become fair game for seizure by both the
British and the French. Several naval engagements between American
and British or French war ships are fought in both European waters and
in the Western hemisphere. The most provocative British action is
an order permitting seizure of neutral ships either sending food and supplies
to France or trading in goods produced in French colonies, particularly
the West Indies. When Britain blockades French ships in the French harbors
early in the French Revolution, American merchants move quickly to take
over commerce in the West Indies. Now, these American merchant ships
are subject to seizure. The British Navy seizes about 300 American
ships and impresses thousands of captured American sailors into service
on British ships. American attempts to negotiate with Britain infuriate
France. France also begins seizing American ships. Attempts to negotiate
with France are fruitless. The French begin to believe they can defeat
the British and want to be in a position to continue their assault on the
Americans after Britain is defeated.
The United States Congress becomes outraged over French minister
Talleyrand's attempt to extract a "gift" from the United States in exchange
for more sincere negotiations on the shipping issues. "No!
No! Not a sixpence!" is the American negotiator's reply. The
reply from the U. S. Congress is even more forceful: "Millions for
defense but not one cent for tribute!" Before Talleyrand's bribery
attempt, the U.S. Congress is divided on how to deal with British and French
affronts to American neutrality and seizure of American shipping. Some
want negotiations while others want war. Talleyrand's actions consolidate
congressional opinion in favor of war. The question is, war with France
or war with England?
When United States relations with England are at their worst, France
makes overtures to the U.S. When relations with France are at their
worst, England makes overtures to the U.S. American neutrality becomes
increasingly difficult to maintain. Deteriorating relations with one or
the other European nation usually leads to further congressional actions
increasing America's preparedness for war. American shippers continue
to ply commerce, incurring both great profit and great risk.
Surprisingly, in the midst of these undulating relations, America
purchases the Louisiana Territory from France. The French need funds
for their war effort and the United States is able to exploit both a temporary
French weakness and a temporary period of bi-lateral good will.
When Great Britain attempts to blockade the American coastline, prohibit
American shipping to the Indies or anywhere on the European continent,
impress increasing numbers of captured American sailors into the British
Navy, and incite the American Indians in the western frontier into hostile
attacks on American settlers, Congress finally declares war on Britain.
The War of 1812 sees the British and their Native American and Canadian
allies victorious in most early military engagements and sees the British
march across much of the American national territory effectively unopposed.
The British even burn the American national capital. In the long run, however,
Britain is unable to wage war on both the European and the North American
continents at the same time. The European war against Napoleon consumes
most of England's manpower and logistical resources. The American campaign
becomes a war of attrition which the British come to believe they can not
win. The Treaty of Ghent is signed in December 24, 1814, but hostile
actions continue until March 1815 because poor communications make it impossible
to demobilize the armies in the field. The great American victory at the
Battle of New Orleans is actually fought after the Treaty of Ghent is signed
and is an unnecessary loss of British life; many of the soldiers who die
at New Orleans are recent survivors of the carnage in Europe battling Napoleon.
With the conclusion of the War of 1812, the United States enters
a period of important foreign policy successes. First, America's
standing and reputation in the world community increases considerably and
threats to American national security and national integrity stop.
Indeed, when the United States institutes the Monroe Doctrine after the
War of 1812 to discourage the European Holy Alliance from initiating efforts
to re-establish control of the newly independent former Spanish colonies
in Central and Latin America, the Europeans are respectfully discouraged.
Second, American rights to trade and commerce are recognized. Commerce
is reestablished with both England and France. American shipping
continues to dominate trade in the West Indies. Third, America sends
a naval and marine force to North Africa to put a final end to the tribute
extraction efforts of the Barbary pirates. Finally, the United States government
extracts major concessions of territory from the Native American tribes,
especially those that sided with the British in the War of 1812.
The Sioux and the Ohio Indians cede vast areas from the Appalachians to
the Great Lakes. The Chickasaw cede areas between the Tennessee and
Mississippi Rivers. The Creeks cede territory in the American South.
The Seminoles, the lone resisting tribe among the frontier Indians, find
themselves the subject of a Florida invasion. Having withstood an
invasion by one of the most powerful nations of Europe, the United States
earns a position of respect in both Europe and the Western Hemisphere.
