The new United States begins life surrounded to the north, west, and south by territory held by others. The British continue to hold Canada to the north. The Spanish hold Florida and the coastal territories surrounding the Gulf of Mexico. The French control the Northwest Territory until they cede military control to the British following the French and Indian War. French cultural, economic, and religious influence remains high in the territory, however. The British cede the Northwest Territory from Ohio to the upper regions of the Great Lakes to the Americans following the end of the Revolutionary War, but are slow to withdraw their troops, their influence, and their encouragement of Indian hostilities with the westward moving American settlers. Gradually, the United States gains practical and operational control of the Northwest Territory and turns its attentions to the remaining European-held territory.
The Louisiana Territory from the Gulf of Mexico and the Mississippi River, west into the Rocky Mountains changes hands several times in the late 1700s
with Britain, Spain and France holding title at various times. In
1803, President Thomas Jefferson negotiates the purchase of the Louisiana
Territory from France, who holds the territory at the time. Napoleon needs funds for his European military campaign.
Although title changes to the Americans, final details concerning the territorial
boundaries are not worked out until 1819. It is Spain, the former
owner of the Louisiana Territory, who supplies the boundary information. The Lewis and Clark Expedition lays physical claim to the territory and opens the territory to American settlement.
At the same time as he is negotiating the purchase of Louisiana, Thomas
Jefferson is also negotiating with Napoleon to purchase Florida from Spain. Spain and France are allied at the time. Napoleon agrees on a sale price of $7-million on behalf of Spain, but Congress
is too slow appropriating the money. Napoleon withdraws his offer
when he places his brother Joseph on the Spanish throne in 1808.
In 1810, Americans living in Baton Rouge declare independence for
West Florida, then ask the United States for annexation of their territory;
President James Madison complies. Spain is impotent to oppose this "revolution”.
Spain is also impotent to oppose any of the numerous revolutions occurring
throughout the Spanish colonies in North, Central and South America about
the same time. By the conclusion of the War of 1812, Spain has effective
control of only a small portion of Florida around Pensacola and St. Augustine.
West Florida to Louisiana is U.S. territory. East Florida is an area of
anarchy occupied by runaway slaves, criminals, Creek Indians and British
troops fleeing defeat in the War of 1812. The British build and temporarily
occupy a fort on the Appalachicola River during 1815; when they abandon
the fort, runaway slaves seize the fort as a refuge. East Florida becomes
such a law enforcement and economic nuisance to the United States that
the U.S., with Spanish permission, invades the area in 1816 and destroys
the "Negro Fort." Andrew Jackson leads an expedition against the
Seminole Indians in 1819. Also in 1819, Spain finally cedes control of
Florida to the United States; in return, the U.S. agrees to recognize Spanish
control of the vast Texas Territory, an agreement made irrelevant by Mexican
independence. In a few years, Texans claim their independence from
Mexico and operate an independent republic while they await Congressional
approval to join with the other united states. Later, in a war with Mexico, the United States obtains vast territories in the southwest and along the Pacific Coast both by treaty and by purchase.
Though foreign policy inituatives relying on diplomacy, purchase, and war, the United States now controls all the hearland of the North American continent from the Atlantic to the Pacific Oceans.
